An Update on the Management of Parkinson’s Disease

Shen-Yang Lim, MBBS, FRACP, Movement Disorder Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON.
Susan H. Fox, MRCP (UK), PhD, Movement Disorder Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by the presence of bradykinesia, rigidity, and rest tremor. Nonmotor symptoms are also very common in PD and may result in significant disability. Many approaches are available to reduce symptoms. In this article we provide an update on the management of PD. We also discuss the limitations of current treatments.
Key words: Parkinson’s disease, treatment, motor response complications, nonmotor, nondopaminergic.

Approach to Tremor in Older Adults

Joel S. Hurwitz, MB, FRCPC, FRCP (London), Associate Professor, Department of Medicine (Division of Geriatric Medicine), University of Western Ontario, London, ON.

This article will assist the clinician in defining and categorizing tremor, also suggesting key questions and physical examination techniques to facilitate a probable diagnosis in an older adult. The role of many drugs in the causation and exacerbation of tremor is discussed and the treatment of several specific tremor disorders is reviewed.
Key words: essential tremor, postural tremor, kinetic tremor, enhanced physiological tremor, parkinsonism.

The Role of the Neurologic Examination in the Diagnosis and Categorization of Dementia

John R. Wherrett, MD, FRCP(C), PhD, Professor Emeritus, Division of Neurology, University of Toronto; consultant in Neurology, Toronto Western Hospital and Toronto Rehabilitation Institute; member, Memory Clinic, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON.

Nonneurologist practitioners faced with the diagnosis of dementia cannot be expected to conduct the detailed assessments for which neurologists are trained. Nonetheless, they should be able to diagnose the most common forms of neurodegenerative dementia and identify individuals that require more detailed neurologic workup. A neurologic examination algorithm is described that allows the practitioner, in a stepwise and efficient manner, to elicit findings that distinguish the main categories of neurodegenerative and vascular dementia, namely, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, vascular dementia, and frontotemporal lobar degenerations. Patients are assessed for gait, frontal signs, signs of parkinsonism, signs of focal or lateralized lesions, neuro-ophthalmologic signs, and signs characteristic of frontotemporal lobar degeneration.
Key words: neurologic, examination, neurodegenerative, dementia, diagnosis, gait, frontal dysfunction, cognitive impairment.

The Elegant Neurological Exam

The neurological exam is arguably the highest yield examination in all of medicine. It certainly is the most elegant part of the physical examination, and watching an experienced neurologist perform an examination can be a thing of beauty. Despite this, my long experience as a teacher suggests that for internists and family physicians the neurological exam is the most feared and probably most poorly executed aspect of the physical examination. I think there are many reasons for this, including the fact that in training we spend less time learning about neurology than, for example, cardiology. As well, an informed neurological exam depends on having a reasonable knowledge of neuroanatomy. For many of us that knowledge seems to steadily erode over the years. In a generalist practice, we almost always examine the lungs and heart of sick patients, but not always the neurological system, so there is less practice. As well, older patients often have multiple neurological findings, and it is hard to separate the background conditions from the important findings.

This is my long-winded explanation of why periodic updates in neurology are of value for most practitioners, and we hope that you will find this primer on neurology helpful. When I mentioned that watching a neurological exam can be a thing of beauty, I was particularly thinking of the author of this month’s CME article, “The Role of the Neurologic Examination in the Diagnosis and Categorization of Dementia.” Dr. John Wherrett is one of Canada’s most accomplished neurologists, and has excelled at one point or another in every area of neurology. New information on the significance and prognosis of essential tremor has recently become available, so the article on “Approach to Tremor in Older Adults” by Dr. Joel Hurwitz is of particular importance. Parkinson’s disease is extremely common among older adults, making the article “An Update on the Management of Parkinson’s Disease” by Drs. Shen-Yang Lim and Susan Fox particularly helpful to those of us who care for older adults. Our Dementia column fits in well with our focus this month, namely “Mild Cognitive Impairment: What Is It and Where Does It Lead?” by Lesley J. Ritchie and Dr. Holly Tuokko.

Our Cardiovascular Disease column this month by Dr. Christian Werner and Dr. Michael Böhm asks a very topical question: “Is Dual Blockade Most Effective for CHF? When to Use ARB and ACE Inhibitors Together”. Our Nutrition column will be of benefit for those who counsel both younger and older patients on diet. It is entitled “Nutritional Guidelines in Canada and the US: Differences between Younger and Older Adults” by Joan Pleuss. And this month’s Case Study is on the topic of “Dysphagia among Older Adults” by Dr. Amira Rana, Anselmo Mendez, and Dr. Shabbir Alibhai.

Enjoy this issue,
Barry Goldlist

Chorea among Older Adults

Bhaskar Ghosh, MD, DNB, DM, MNAMS, Movement Disorders Program, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB.
Oksana Suchowersky, MD, FRCPC, FCCMG, Movement Disorders Program, Department of Clinical Neurosciences; Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB.

Chorea is a hyperkinetic movement disorder characterized by nonsustained, rapid, and random contractions that may affect all body parts. Chorea is hypothesized to be due to an imbalance between the direct and indirect pathways in the basal ganglia circuitry. Important causes of chorea among older adults include medications, stroke, and toxic-metabolic, infective, immune-mediated, and genetic causes. The history and clinical examination guide appropriate investigations and help determine an accurate diagnosis. In secondary causes, removal of the precipitating cause is the mainstay of treatment. If the chorea is persistent or progressive, drug therapy may be instituted. Genetic counselling is important in hereditary chorea.
Key words: movement disorders, chorea, older adults, diagnosis, treatment.

The Impact of Exercise Rehabilitation and Physical Activity on the Management of Parkinson’s Disease

A.M. Johnson, PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Western Ontario, London, ON.
Q.J. Almeida, PhD, Director, Movement Disorders Research & Rehabilitation Centre, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON.

Although medication therapy is generally effective in the clinical management of Parkinson’s disease (PD), additional improvement of some gross motor symptoms may be achieved through the use of nonpharmacological treatments, such as physical therapy and exercise rehabilitation. Despite the fact that PD is a neurological disorder, successful rehabilitation has been demonstrated with treatments that combine cognitive and physical approaches. While the exact mechanism through which these therapies obtain successful outcomes is still largely unknown, it is worthwhile to explore these adjunctive approaches to treating the motor output symptoms of PD.
Key words: Parkinson’s disease, movement disorders, exercise rehabilitation, physical therapy, motor control.

The Future of Wheelchairs: Intelligent Collision Avoidance and Navigation Assistance

Pooja Viswanathan, BMath, MSc Candidate, Department of Computer Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
Jennifer Boger, MASc, Research Manager, Intelligent Assistive Technology and Systems Lab, Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Toronto; Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON.
Jesse Hoey, PhD, Lecturer, School of Computing, University of Dundee, Dundee, Scotland; Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON.
Pantelis Elinas, MSc, PhD Candidate, Department of Computer Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
Alex Mihailidis, PhD, PEng, Assistant Professor and Head of Intelligent Assistive Technology and Systems Lab, Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Toronto; Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON.

Mobility and independence are essential components of a high quality of life. Although they lack the strength to operate manual wheelchairs, most physically disabled older adults with cognitive impairment are also not permitted to use powered wheelchairs due to concerns about their safety. The resulting restriction of mobility often leads to frustration and depression. To address this need, the authors are developing an intelligent powered wheelchair to enable safe navigation and encourage interaction between the driver and his/her environment. The assistive technology described in this article is intended to increase independent mobility, thereby improving the quality of life of older adults with cognitive impairments.
Key words: mobility, artificial intelligence, assistive technology, wheelchairs, cognitive impairment.

Multiple System Atrophy: An Update

Felix Geser, MD, PhD, Clinical Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
Gregor K. Wenning, MD, PhD, Clinical Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is a sporadic neurodegenerative disorder characterized clinically by various combinations of parkinsonian, autonomic, cerebellar, or pyramidal signs and pathologically by cell loss, gliosis, and a-synuclein-positive glial cytoplasmic inclusions in several brain and spinal cord structures. The clinical recognition of MSA has improved, and the recent consensus diagnostic criteria have been widely established in the research community as well as in movement disorders clinics. Although the diagnosis of this condition is largely based on clinical expertise, several investigations have been proposed in the last decade to assist in early differential diagnosis. Symptomatic therapeutic strategies are still limited.
Key words: multiple system atrophy, clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment.

Nonpharmacological Management of Hypokinetic Dysarthria in Parkinson’s Disease

AM Johnson, PhD, Assistant Professor, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON.
SG Adams, PhD, Associate Professor, School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, the University of Western Ontario, London, ON.

In addition to its widely recognized effects on gait, posture, balance, and upper limb coordination, Parkinson’s disease (PD) can have a profound effect on speech and voice, within a cluster of speech characteristics termed hypokinetic dysarthria. Although dopaminergic therapy produces significant benefits in the early stages of PD, speech symptoms may show selective resistance to pharmaceutical therapy in patients with a disease history of more than 10 years. This article discusses the pathophysiology of PD as it relates to speech disorders and considers nonpharmaceutical therapeutic options for hypokinetic dysarthria.
Key words: Parkinson’s disease, speech pathology, dysarthria, treatment.

Assessment of Mobility Impairment

Roger Y. Wong, MD, FACP, FRCPC, Division of Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.

Mobility impairment is a common cause of disability in older persons. The etiology is often multiple, with medical illnesses that affect the musculoskeletal, neurologic, cardiac, and/or respiratory systems superimposed on aging-related changes in gait and balance. A detailed history on the onset, duration, nature, and course of the mobility impairment is helpful. Physical examination should focus on direct observation of gait and balance, while performance- based tests can quantify the abnormalities. Simple tests for assessing walking speed, endurance, and balance are available for both outpatient and inpatient settings. The management of mobility impairment requires a multifaceted interdisciplinary approach.
Key words: mobility, gait and balance, impairment, assessment, walk tests.